Why do the spectral lines of galaxies exhibit a redshift directly proportional to distance if the Universe is not expanding and galaxies are not receding? The answer is contained within the general theory of relativity. According to this theory, electromagnetic waves — including light waves — are lengthened also when passing through a gravitational field. The idea itself is not new, but the Gravitational Model of the Universe removes the objections that previously led to the rejection of this theory. Moreover, it explains certain facts (observations) that cannot be explained by the Doppler effect alone. The gravitational field, together with its source, is distributed uniformly on large scales. We will call this a gravitational filter. For simplicity, let us assume that the gravitational field of the observed form of matter is not included in this filter. Thus, the greater the distance between a galaxy and the observer, the “thicker” (stronger) the gravitational filter between them. The relationship is linear because the strength of the filter is (statistically) identical at every point in spacetime. Consequently, galactic spectra exhibit a redshift directly proportional to distance. Of course, the motion of galaxies cannot be ignored, since it also changes the wavelength of light through the Doppler effect. This explains why Hubble’s law is statistically fulfilled for a statistically representative number of galaxies at a given distance rather than for every individual galaxy. It follows that the strength of the gravitational filter per unit distance should be calculable.
The hypothesis of the gravitational filter is also supported by the distribution of gamma-ray bursts. According to the Big Bang theory, the relationship between brightness and the number of bursts should arise from the fact that burst brightness decreases with the square of distance, while the volume of space in which bursts occur increases proportionally to the cube of distance. BATSE data indicates that the number of weak bursts decreases much more rapidly than predicted by this relationship, suggesting that we are observing the boundary of their occurrence [6, 7, 8]. Bohdan Paczyński of Princeton University proposed that we may be observing the edge of the Universe [6]. Yet the distribution of bursts is identical in all directions (both quantitatively and qualitatively) [6, 7, 8]. This would imply that the Earth occupies the centre of the Universe (again!). In the proposed Model, however, the picture is quite different. The effect of the gravitational filter modifies the above relationship. Gamma waves of lower energy lose energy more rapidly than higher-energy gamma waves (in the same gravitational field). As a result, weaker bursts disappear more quickly than stronger ones. The number of weaker bursts therefore declines more rapidly. When this effect is taken into account, it appears that Earth no longer occupies a privileged position in the Universe.
The existence of the gravitational filter is also supported by the absence of the photometric paradox. Electromagnetic waves in the visible spectrum are shifted toward radio waves. This is supported by the observation that the shape of the radio source of distant, so-called radio galaxies approximately corresponds to their visible forms [14]. Nearby radio galaxies, in which such correspondence is absent, are interpreted simply as galaxies of a different type from the distant ones. They are not observed farther in spacetime because of the gravitational filter.
The hypothesis is further supported by the differing appearance of nearby and distant galaxies. Distant galaxies appear elongated and torn [14, 15]; with increasing distance, the regions emitting the lowest-energy waves gradually disappear, while the image itself becomes deformed within local curvatures of spacetime.
How can one explain the existence of forms of matter whose redshift indicates that they do not occur in nearby spacetime? This cannot be explained solely by the gravitational filter or by spacetime curvatures, since these have an identical effect on electromagnetic waves, regardless of the form of matter emitting them. It could concern those forms of matter that generate gravitational fields of such strength that the electromagnetic waves they emit become highly redshifted simply as a result of escaping through those fields [17]. In reality, therefore, the problem lies in incorrect determination of such distances, not in their absence in the “old Universe”. This interpretation is supported by observational data concerning, e.g. galaxy NGC 4319 and its associated quasar. Although observations suggest that the two objects are connected (and therefore located at the same distance from us), the Doppler interpretation of redshift would place the galaxy at a distance of 59 million light-years and the quasar at 912 million light-years [16].
In summary, the redshift of galactic spectra (for galaxies of a given type) is directly proportional to distance from the observer because electromagnetic waves pass through the gravitational filter. Deviations from the statistical average redshift at a given distance are attributable to the Doppler effect.